The history of African beads is linked to the history of a vast, diverse continent. Beads have been crucial to the lives of African people. There is little in Africa that costs so little-or costs so much. From a simple necklace of colorful seeds, to a 3,000-year-old nugget of Chaldean glass, the value of African beads can range from a few farthings to a fortune.

Every visitor to Africa encounters beads sooner or later, whether it's an Egyptian reciting the 99 names of Allah on his prayer beads, or the Maasai women in Kenya and Tanzania with their elaborate collars. From the intricate costumes of South Africa's Ndebele people to the rich adornment of Nigerian kings: From the markets of Morocco to the stalls of Senegal, beads are a way of life.

Just what are these little bits of stone, glass, wood, seeds, metal, shell, teeth, clay, plastic and bone? Where do they come from, what do they mean, how are they used, what are they made of, why are they valued? Beads are an integral part of African history. The Dutch, English, French, Belgian and Germans, hot on the heels of the Portugese, all wanted to gain control over Africa. During this scramble for power Venetian, Dutch and Bohemian glass beads played a major role in the history of Africa.

By the 19th Century African middlemen were carrying these beads into the heart of the continent, bartering them for gold, incense, ivory and slaves. Between 1500 and 1867 15 million Africans slaves were shipped to Europe and the Americas in exchange for a mere handful of beads They function as money, they possess power, they indicate wealth, they are spiritual talismans, and they form coded messages. Such is the language of beads-a language rich in beauty and tradition, a language that tells the story of trade with foreigners, vast migrations, and vanished empires. But jewelry was not only for adornment. Gold pendants were used as badges to signify high-rank. Cowrie shells were thought to increase fertility. Beaded amulets and talismans warded off evil spirits and had the power to cure illness.  Jewelry also played an important role in funerary equipment assigned to the departed.     Far more common are so-called Roman Eye beads-dating from 1000 BC to about 500 AD. Though it is assumed that Romans traded with these beads, they are more likely of Syrian or Byzantine origin. 

     The modern center for Ancient Eye beads is the medieval city of Djenne in Mali. At first such beads appear to be rather lackluster and ordinary, but when trans-illuminated, they reveal spectacular shades of blue. Buried in the sand for       centuries, many are in remarkably good condition considering they may be 2,000 years old. As one of the poorest populations in Africa, local people know full well the value of such beads. They are painstakingly dug out of the desert one by one, then sold to merchants in Mopti who assemble a strand of several dozen for sale to collectors.              

By far the most popular African beads among collectors are known as African Trade Beads. They come in
all shapes and sizes and are generally glass or ceramic. In the age of exploration and the subsequent colonization of Africa, beads manufactured in Europe were regularly used as a medium of exchange. The most famous of these beads include polychrome millefiore beads (thousand flowers) and multi-layered chevrons. The early Venetian styles were soon copied by other Europeans, including the Dutch and artisans in eastern Europe. Between 1500 and 1900, millefiore and chevrons were in wide use throughout West and North Africa as payment for gold, salt and slaves.   
                            
In Africa both men and women wear beads for a variety of reasons-including adornment and status. In the Congo the Kuba kings wear elaborate costumes decorated with colorful beads and cowrie shells. Most splendid among these is the royal ceremonial bwaantshy, worn on state occasions. These extravagant costumes can weigh over 180 pounds, including the tunic, robes, belts, gloves, shoes and an elaborate headdress with an attached beaded beard. Surrounding the king are symbols of office, his throne, the dais and the royal drum-every square inch covered in beaded designs. When a king dies, he is buried in his bwaantshy. Equally exquisite are the royal Kuba masks covered in beads and cowrie shells. These masks are thought to impart psychic powers to the king, enabling him to detect those who might plot against him. Yoruba kings of Nigeria wear crowns that are cone-shaped and sport beaded veils. In Yoruba tradition, strands of beads are the emblems of the gods. In addition to geometrical designs, royal attire often features beaded representations of ancestors and creatures who facilitate communication with the spirit world.

Bamum beadwork from neighboring Cameroon is legendary. Cowrie shells (mbuum) were used as money and to this day mbuum is the Bamum word for money. When the Bamum Kingdom expanded at the beginning of the 19th century, beads were extremely rare. Tiny glass beads called "seed beads" were imported from Nigeria and coastal areas to the south. The Bamum conquered the small kingdom of Mamegnam and brought their bead-makers to the royal court, establishing a tradition of beaded royal regalia. The Bamum kings controlled the money supply (beads and cowries), enabling them to establish an aristocracy whose beaded clothing signified their authority.     

Bodum beads from Ghana are the ancestors of present-day powdered glass beadmaking in Ghana. Old and valuable (imbued with magical and medicinal powers), they are passed down through families and are also used in funeral ceremonies. Legend has it that Bodums are born of the earth-and if buried again, will reproduce themselves. The Akan kings and queen others of Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire also wear beads on state occasions. Beads are often part of a royal treasury and during festivals, they are loaned out to relatives and members of the royal court.

All across West Africa, beads have long held a sacred place in animist religions. The voodoo priesthoods of Benin, Togo and Ghana use beads in rituals, and they are often left at shrines as offerings to the gods. It is forbidden to touch beads worn by a priestess or the Queen Mother of a royal family.
    
In South Africa, the Zulu sangoma are respected elders who function as traditional healers and perform acts of sorcery such as predicting the future. The sangoma prepares bead-covered gourds that contain herbs and medicines to assist in healing and to protect the wearer from various misfortunes. One preparation called an ishungu is designed to induce fertility in women who experience difficulty in conceiving. The sangomas also use divination tools covered in beadwork and wear beaded costumes and head attire. Colors and patterns convey messages, in a complex litany of coded meanings that are unique to Zulu bead culture.
    
Adornment remains the primary use of beads throughout the continent. As an item of beauty and craftsmanship, beads transfer their essence to the wearer. And because adornment is often linked to romance, beads play a significant role in attracting members of the opposite sex.       

No discussion of beads is complete without reference to the people of the Sahara and the Rift Valley in East Africa. Tuaregs roam the desolate sands from Timbuktu to Khartoum, trading and transporting a variety of goods as in days gone by. The African Nomad is largely responsible for the proliferation of beads throughout the continent. The Tuareg are renowned silversmiths and have evolved a style of jewelry unique to their culture.     Tuareg silver (enriched nickel alloy) is fashioned into all manner of crosses, pendants and talismans, often incorporating antique beads and semi-precious stones. Inscriptions and silver capsules containing messages reflect teachings        from the Koran. Similarly in Ethiopia, Telsum beads are small silver boxes given to Christian children at birth. They often contain charms and prayers and are worn as religious symbols.
    
The Nilotic peoples of the Rift Valley include the Nuba, Dinka and Tobotha in Sudan, Turkana and Samburu in Kenya and the Maasai of the Serengeti bordering Tanzania. All of these cultures are known for their elaborate beadwork, but it's usually the Maasai who come to mind. Because their homelands coincide with vast wildlife reserves, the world is now familiar with television scenes of Maasai women and their fabulous beads. Women of marriageable age wear stiff flat beaded collars. Only a married woman may wear a string of long blue beads called Nborro. The wedding necklace consists of three elements-a headpiece with beads running across the forehead and eyes, a choker around the neck, and a large circular necklace that spans the shoulders and has strings of beads with cowrie shells at the bottom
    
A Maasai warrior wears strings of beads across his chest and back plus bands of striped beadwork around the neck. Beaded armbands and legbands are gifts from mothers and girlfriends and are worn as signs of love. When a warrior becomes an elder he surrenders his beaded attire, but he may still use beaded objects such as a tobacco container or the traditional rungu stick (a symbol of authority).           

Beads were even used to purchase the island of.. MANHATTAN ..     In New York City, now the most valuable piece of real estate in the world.                

Beads unite African communities, communicating and reinforcing  common  understanding, handed down through generations .  African beadwork is meant to be noticed.